What Is Ecological Correlation

Correlation is an important statistical tool. This method in statistics can help us to determine and to describe the relationship between two variables. We must be careful to use and interpret correlation correctly. One such warning is to always remember that correlation does not imply causation.  There are other aspects of correlation that we must be careful with.  When working with correlation we must also be cautious of ecological correlation. Ecological correlation is a correlation based on averages. Although this can be helpful, and sometimes even necessary to consider, we must be careful not to assume that this type of correlation applies to individuals as well. Example One We will illustrate the concept of ecological correlation, and stress that it not be misused, by looking at a few examples. An example of an ecological correlation between two variables is the number of years of education and average income. We can see that these two variables are positively correlated quite strongly: the higher the number of years of education, the greater the average income level.  It would be a mistake to then think that this correlation holds for individual incomes. When we consider individuals with the same education levels, the income levels are spread out. If we would construct a scatterplot of this data, we would see this spread of points. The result would be that the correlation between education and individual incomes would be much weaker than the correlation between years of education and average incomes. Example Two Another example of ecological correlation that we will consider concerns voting patterns and income level. At the state level, wealthier states tend to vote at a higher proportion for Democratic candidates. Poorer states vote in higher proportions for Republican candidates. For individuals this correlation changes. A larger portion of poorer individuals vote Democratic and a larger portion of wealthy individuals vote Republican. Example Three A third instance of ecological correlation is when we look at the number of hours of weekly exercise and average body mass index. Here the number of hours of exercise is the explanatory variable and the average body mass index is the response. As exercise increases, we would expect body mass index to go down. We would thus observe a strong negative correlation between these variables. However, when we look at the individual level the correlation would not be as strong. Ecological Fallacy Ecological correlation is related to the ecological fallacy and is one instance of this kind of fallacy. This type of logical fallacy infers that a statistical statement pertaining to a group also applies to the individuals within that group. This is a form of the division fallacy, which mistakes statements involving groups for individuals. Another way that ecological fallacies appear in statistics is Simpson’s paradox. Simpson’s paradox refers to the comparison between two individuals or populations. We will distinguish between these two by A and B. A series of measurements may show that a variable always has a higher value for A rather than B. But when we average the values of this variable, we see that B is greater than A. Ecological The term ecological is related to ecology. One use of the term ecology is to refer to a certain branch of biology. This part of biology studies the interactions between organisms and their environment. This consideration of an individual as part of something much larger is the sense In which this type of correlation is named.

Negative Aspects of Cosmetic Surgery Essay - 1442 Words

Cosmetic Surgery - Worth the Risk? In todays society the picture of beauty is a thin super model with the body of a goddess posted on billboards all around the world. Children grow up playing with Barbie dolls with the body measurements of would be 90,60,90. Because of these pictures and other figures of beauties projected all over, a person is convinced to believe that to be beautiful and happy, one must look like these images. To most, the easiest way to achieve this is my having cosmetic surgery performed. With the change of times, has also come the advancement of medical procedures, yet how safe can a person be who is having cosmetic surgery performed on their body. No matter how good the technological advancements, there is always†¦show more content†¦Yet, many who are looking into having a surgical procedure performed do not take this risk into account. Although the technological advancements of today may seem to have improved the results of cosmetic surgery, more complications can also arise from improper training of the surgeon. Many discount price plastic surgeons that claim to offer professional service for a low price have begun to show up all over the country. Most of these doctors not even properly trained to perform such drastic cosmetic surgeries. A doctor can attend a seminar at a hotel and in a few hours, learn how to perform liposuction (Fettabsaugung). With the increase of untrained surgeons performing these procedures, the risk of death and improper results also increases greatly. Low-income people that are attracted to the visions of beauty on the magazines are caught in the lure of these fake surgeons. These doctors promise perfect results at half the price of experienced surgeons. Any doctor can perform procedures such as liposuction, even dentists have been doing it. Many fatalities of cosmetic surgeries in recent years have been as a result of unlicensed doctors performing highly technical surgeries. Its especially risky if its done in a doctors office, if the doctor is not properly trained and certified... A current issue in Miami, Florida involves a plastic surgery doctor named Reinaldo Silvestre who is believed to have fled the country as aShow MoreRelatedCosmetic Surgery Is Worth The Cost1529 Words   |  7 Pagesyears, the growing of cosmetic surgery in the United States has put an extensive burden on women, men, cosmetic surgeons, and those who live in this generation to consider what the standard of beauty today is. Living in an era where advanced technology makes everything seem possible, the unrealistic expectations of beauty start spreading that allow mass participation in the beauty game, experience sharing, and encouragement of the ideal beauty. 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Iraq and united states Essay Example For Students

Iraq and united states Essay Even though the countries of Iraq and the United States have much friction between each other it is very surprising how much the constitutions of both nations are alike. James Madison became the main writer of the United States Constitution, which was adopted in 1789 . The 13 states ratified the constitution, making it the basis of the Government of the United States. In 1990 the Iraqi government adopted their constitution. The Revolutionary Council wrote their constitution as the framework for the government of Iraq. The United States Government consists of three branches. The Legislative branch proposes and enacts laws, and can impeach members of the other branches. The Judiciary branch interprets the laws and makes sure they are constitutional. The Executive branch enforces the laws, and can veto bills passed by Congress. The highest level of power in Iraq belongs to the Revolutionary Command Council. Its responsibilities are to elect the president from its members, make up the laws, and elect a vice president. The members of the Revolutionary Command Council assume full immunity and nothing can be taken against any member without a majority vote from the council. There is also a National Council made up of representatives from different sectors, who ratify laws made by the president. Iraq also has a judiciary branch. Our First Amendment guarantees freedom of speech and freedom of the press. The Iraqi Constitution guarantees freedom of opinion, political parties , press and syndicate, within the law, only if it follows the Revolutionary, national and progressive trend. The First Amendment also guarantees freedom of religion. In Iraq the national religion is Islam, however they also have freedom of religion. In Iraq you are allowed to own a limited amount of land, but in the United States you can own unlimited land if you can pay for it. If you are accused of a crime in the United States, you have the right to a trial by a jury of your peers, the right to a lawyer, and you cannot be forced to testify against yourself. The Iraqi constitution includes the rights of innocent until proven guilty at a legal trial, and the right to defense. I have learned that our government is different from other nations because the power comes from the people, instead of the government having all the power and granting the people certain rights.